| The Role of the Photogrammetric Project Manager in Research and Development
By Stanley C. Budhram and J. Edward Kunz; edited by David K. Nale Introduction
Until recently, the term Research and Development (R&D) was viewed by many members of the photogrammetric mapping industry as something engaged in only by drug companies, institutions of higher learning, and the military. Departments of R&D were virtually unknown in the commercial photogrammetric mapping industry, and large R&D budgets simply did not exist.
 The parcel with the yellow dot in the digital orthophoto, to the immediate right of the ground image in View 2, the corresponding property. In the days prior to the proliferation of personal computers, that is, before 1980, the photogrammetric mapping industry consisted of small, professional organizations. The advent of PCs, and of mapping software that interfaced with the analytical stereoplotter, helped create the large, high-tech photogrammetric mapping companies that are in existence today. Many such firms experienced a great technological shock when they were faced with retooling and reorganization. Those photogrammetrists and project managers (PMs), accustomed to operating and managing their work on analog stereoplotters, were forced to learn previously unneeded computing skills. The industry initially responded to this challenge by computerizing existing instruments, or by introducing hybrid analytical plotters. This development somewhat insulated these photogrammetrists and PMs by allowing them to continue to operating their instruments - and managing their jobs - with relatively little change. A limited amount of R&D was required to change or improve these methods of operation.
In the mid-1990s, the industry experienced another shock as softcopy photogrammetric mapping technologies moved away from the realm of the secret world of intelligence services and into the environment of commercial production. This new technology provided much promise, but it also required a computer-intensive skill set. Many larger photogrammetric mapping firms responded by creating their own research-and-development departments. These R&D departments typically included a staff Ph.D in photogrammetry whom senior managers tasked with automating processes and stretching technology to the limit of its accuracy and productive potential. In this scenario, because of their unique position in the organizational structure, PMs began assuming the dual roles of "technology translator" and "communication facilitator." They began to regularly interact with the R&D staff, with production personnel, and with senior managers. Both production personnel and senior managers came to rely upon PMs to translate the highly technical verbiage and numbers produced by R&D staff into more easily understandable documentation, charts and graphs, work plans, and other ephemera. The R&D staff came to rely upon the PMs to communicate to them the successes or failures of their latest programs within the production environment.
However, some photogrammetric mapping firms continued to cling to the old ways of management and production techniques that had been developed for analog production. They expected to use the very same techniques that were utilized in the early 1980s to "shoehorn" this new technology into production and management schemes from the past. Many of these firms failed to recognize that, as production and project management technology evolved, a new skill set was expected of the photogrammetric mapping project manager.
Project managers have dealt successfully with specific management issues for many years, including ensuring that projects are completed on time, within budget, and to a client's satisfaction. However, PMs were not accustomed to dealing with the challenges and opportunities that softcopy photogrammetric mapping production entails, especially in the continued absence of a dedicated staff that performed uniquely R&D functions.
These days, the PM is required to exhibit a thorough knowledge of computer hardware and mapping software, conduct work flow analyses, recommend appropriate adjustments, translate highly technical information into more easily understood media, and investigate and report to senior managers anything that concerns the viability of new technologies, processes or procedures. PMs may also be called upon to train their staff in quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) functions. These new demands on the PM can create an R&D "crisis mentality" as they scramble to manage every new aspect of the job.
In today's highly competitive environment, alternatives to this crisis approach of project management are imperative in order to preserve both a project's profitability and a client's level of satisfaction.
This article proposes an alternative approach, based upon the following skill sets that will allow project managers to successfully perform their management and R&D functions. These skills should also aid in bringing projects to completion on time, within budget, and to a client's satisfaction. They are as follows:
• Full computer knowledge, including systems operation, functions, speed, differences among operating system, etc.
• Knowledge of desktop mapping software
• Knowledge of computer-aided design, computer drafting, and competence in stereo compilation software
• Skills in technical communication, and in research.
The aim of this article is to introduce both project managers and senior managers to the broad concepts of photogrammetric mapping R&D, and to motivate them to employ these aforementioned skills. By understanding and applying these skills, companies may be able to expand their utilization of present systems, improve current workflow processes and procedures, assist in production planning and management, and generate new production, management, or QA/QC processes and procedures via research and development. Computer Knowledge
In today's photogrammetric mapping production environment, it is likely that PMs will be exposed to several different operating systems. These may include:
• Windows 95, 98, or 2000, operating on their desktop personal computer
• Windows NT 4.0 or 2000, driving photogrammetric production software
• Sun Solaris or other versions of UNIX, driving photogrammetric production software.
A PM should be able to understand the basic differences from one operating system to another. For example, he or she must understand basic hardware terminology such as megabytes of random access memory (RAM), megahertz of processing power, and how these are factored into the performance and potential applications of the machine. PMs must also understand the differences in software use and compatibility between each type of system.
When production system upgrades are being considered, senior managers should be able to turn to their PMs for advice and information concerning which systems are best for production, production management, and/or project management. A PM should be able to provide senior managers with a number of options and recommendations for consideration. These might include:
• Hardware and software costs for each system
• Interoperability with the company's existing system
• Multi-tasking, i.e., whether administrative functions such
as word processing and spreadsheet development can be accomplished on a production machine
• Potential learning curve: the time and cost of learning new or upgraded software
• Comparisons in processing speed
• Issues of system security.
Taking one example from above, the potential learning curve, a PM must be able to conduct research, complete an analysis, and present senior managers with information - in an easy-to-understand format - that compares the cost and time of learning new software to that of upgrading the existing software. This research and analysis can be visually represented in the appended graphs. Knowledge of Desktop Mapping Software
Research and development functions performed by PMs may not be limited simply to analyzing production hardware and software. Senior managers may also rely upon their PMs to employ existing research and analysis tools, such as desktop mapping products, to their fullest extent possible. One such area involves disaster management.
Disaster management is a high-growth area in the mapping industry. Many photogrammetric mapping firms achieve profitable contracts by mapping areas of potential flood risk, earthquake fault lines, fire-prone or tornado-prone areas, polluted or contaminated regions, etc. Hurricanes are another type of disaster for which photogrammetric mapping firms have been employed to collect data, both before and after the catastrophe.
The very nature of a hurricane - its short period of existence, its massive size, its capacity to destroy large areas - requires the ability to quickly generate such scenarios as depicting all counties along a possible hurricane path that are at risk for a direct or near-direct hit. Senior managers should be able to turn to their PMs for a quick determination of which counties are at risk. They should also be able to request further information such as which counties might suffer the greatest loss in terms of real estate dollars.
One indication of real estate value is that of population size. Senior managers should be able to further query their PMs to determine which counties along a potential path of destruction have populations of 500,000 or greater.
Knowing which counties have the greatest risk, their geographical location, and which counties may suffer the greatest damage, can assist senior managers in a number of ways. These include assembling mapping resources such as aerial photography firms and field survey crews, and preparing schedule scenarios for potential high-capacity (burst) production in the immediate aftermath of a hurricane.
Project managers may also be tasked with creating quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) imagery routines by using existing desktop mapping software. They may further be required to train their staff to assist in QA/QC of the imagery. Finally, they may be required to generate reports of findings.
These research and development tasks mentioned above do not necessarily require in-depth knowledge of computer programming. Rather, they require a thorough understanding of the operations and present capabilities of desktop mapping software, an understanding of the current and potential capabilities of the general staff, and an ability to conduct and present statistical analyses.
For example, let us assume that a project is undertaken which includes capturing ground-level digital imagery of structures, including homes, commercial buildings, public buildings, etc. This ground-level imagery must be matched to an existing GIS with digital orthophoto imagery via a parcel identification number. To effectively complete these required tasks, numerous research and development issues must be addressed by the PM. The general staff must display the ability to:
• Interpret imagery obtained from the air, and enhance their capabilities if necessary
• Interpret ground-based imagery in relation to aerial imagery, and enhance their capabilities if necessary
• Operate desktop mapping software, and enhance their capabilities if necessary
• Use existing or adapt to newly acquired mapping software that displays various types of imagery (TIFF, JPEG etc.)
• Use existing or adapt to newly acquired mapping software that allows Parcel Identification Number (PIN) queries and displays
• Use existing or adapt to newly acquired mapping software that allows multi-screen tiling and multi-screen viewing
• Create written, project-specific QA/QC imagery review definitions and procedures
• Create QA/QC tracking tools and forms
• Collate statistical data concerning correct versus incorrect imagery
• Interpret collected data and generate findings reports
• Presentation of these findings reports, and their resultant recommendations, to the senior management team.
Project managers who are capable of completing such research and development tasks as conducting assessments of existing staff, enhancing present staff abilities through training, effectively utilizing all aspects of existing software, collecting statistics and formulating and presenting reports to senior management, may likewise:
• Assist in employee retention
• Add value to the organization by encouraging employees who possess multiple abilities
• Save the organization and the client the cost of high-priced labor and the purchase of new software
• Ensure the quality of the final mapping product. Computer-aided Design and Drafting, and Knowledge of Stereo Compilation Software
Let us begin with the assumption that a client has existing digital orthophotos and planimetric feature data - in a CADD format - that they wish to have updated, and that the photogrammetric mapping company is using one of many available sophisticated photogrammetric data collection tools as their compilation and editing software. A file translation from the CADD system to the photogrammetric mapping system must first occur before any compilation can begin. In such a scenario, the PM should be familiar with the capabilities and limitations of both the CADD and the photogrammetric compilation software. This knowledge should include any possible corruption or loss of the data that might occur when project files are translated between platforms.
Senior managers should be able to rely upon their PMs to provide them with various production and scheduling scenarios for projects such as what is described above. These research and development tasks may require the PM to conduct a "what if" exercise.
The PM will first review the scope of work with the stereo compilation and editing team. The map scale will be reviewed, as will an update of features for that scale. The required project completion date will be discussed. Additionally, any special requirements will be fully documented and explained. Following the review, and factoring in various time and cost estimates obtained from stereo compilers and editors, the PM will create sophisticated project schedules (Gantt charts) using software such as Microsoft Project, tied in with spreadsheets, accounting software, and the like.
Senior managers, in an effort to optimize production scheduling and project profitability, may request that numerous schedules be presented to them, factoring in one or all of the following scenarios:
• What if we use automatic terrain extraction (ATE) to collect DEM points?
• What if we choose a single elevation for DEM updates in areas that are flat?
• What if we increase our model format size from 9x9 inches to 27x27 inches, using different sensors?
Project managers must understand enough about the technology to properly interpret the questions asked of them by their senior managers. They must also be able to graphically depict the results of implementing suggestions on the project's schedule by these same managers.
The ability to depict various production and scheduling scenarios may:
• Assist in implementing newer production technologies and techniques
• Dissuade management from employing certain techniques or procedures
• Improve the profitability of the project
• Maintain the client's overall satisfaction
The "what if" scenario discussed above assumes that PMs maintain a well-rounded base of knowledge for both manual and some automated digital collection processes. Research and Technical Communications Skills
In today's rapidly changing environment, a PM must not only understand present production technologies, he or she must also be well versed in events taking place in universities and with government agencies that affect the overall photogrammetric mapping industry.
One of the technologies to show great promise for impacting this industry is that of artificial intelligence. An area of artificial intelligence that may greatly impact the photogrammetric mapping industry is known as "machine vision."
Let us assume that a project has been proposed for completion at some near-term date, but one that may not be accomplished profitably by using existing technology. Project managers, occasionally working in conjunction with R&D staff, must be prepared to advise senior managers concerning the viability of groundbreaking technologies such as machine vision to form, analyze and interpret three-dimensional images. When presented with a request for information from senior managers, PMs must be able to utilize various research tools, such as the World Wide Web, to locate articles, theses, and white-paper machine vision publications. Project managers must understand, and be able to present in an easily understandable format, the three principles of machine vision:
• Image formation: digital imagery collection and spatial placement of image pixels
• Image analysis: edge detection
• Image interpretation: edge-map matching
Project managers must also be able to use the research to arrive at conclusions regarding the viability of the machine vision technology that is being employed. These conclusions, whether in the form of text, charts or graphs, should enable senior managers to determine whether or not the project is viable in the near term. Summary
Working with R&D staff members, or with unaligned members of departments within photogrammetric mapping organizations, individuals such as project managers are often relied upon to perform or assist in R&D functions. Project managers must also possess the ability to generate easy-to-understand reports and presentations dealing with research and development issues.
Senior managers and project managers must also ask themselves the question, "Do we, as an organization, have the necessary aforementioned skills to serve as technology translators, communication facilitators, or as effective substitutes for a dedicated R&D individual or department?" About the Authors:
Stanley C. Budhram is a senior project manager with BAE SYSTEMS ADR. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected]. J. Edward Kunz is a marketing project manager with BAE SYSTEMS ADR. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected]. David Nale is the president at Emap International. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected] Back |
