| Decision Making and the Photogrammetric Project Manager
By Stanley C. Budhram and J. Edward Kunz; Edited by David K. Nale Introduction
 We are faced with decisions every day of our lives, with some more difficult to make than others. For the photogrammetric project manager such decisions might include, "Should I alert management concerning potential project difficulties now, or wait until evidence of more problems arise?"
Photogrammetric mapping project managers (PMs) are regularly involved in the decision-making process. They are faced with a multitude of decisions as they manage projects, and this function is made more difficult by the reality that it must often be made with limited access to all the facts. Project-related decisions made by PMs might be influenced by the organizational structure in which they operate, or by their personality and self-image.
In the pre-digital age of commercial photogrammetry - defined here as the time period prior to 1980 - the photogrammetric mapping industry consisted of numerous small companies. Many of these organizations operated as highly skilled, family-type businesses with a single owner who served as the organization's patron. In this environment, PMs were usually senior photogrammetrists or the owner himself, with many years of experience in operating stereo plotters.
The advent of computers, interfaced with stereo plotters, ushered in the era of larger high-technology photogrammetric mapping companies such as those established today. Along with high technology came periods of consolidation within the industry, first in the mid-1980s, then in the early- to mid-1990's, and again in the present decade.
As the industry consolidated, small firms were acquired by larger entities whose core business may not have been photogrammetry. In addition, larger photogrammetric mapping firms also bought out smaller ones that were located in various regions of the country. These consolidations brought about benefits in greater production capacity, larger overall contracts, and deeper and wider market penetration. However, many organizations failed to recognize that, with consolidation and modern technology, a new organizational structure may have been required, and project managers may have needed to display new skill sets and/or personality types.
The aim of this article is to introduce senior management and project managers to:
• Two types of organizational structures: functional and flat
• Decision-making strategies that may be required of PMs
• Ways to determine potentially successful PM personality types
• Skill sets that are required for effective project management. Organizational Structure
To successfully perform their duties, PMs must be aware of their roles and responsibilities, as well as management's expectations of their activities and the organization's view of the PMs themselves. The organizational structure should enhance the PM's authority and responsibilities, and management's overall expectations. Problems arise when there is a mismatch between authority and responsibility, that is, when responsibility is greater than the authority granted to exercise it. In this situation, the PM may not be able to effectively accomplish tasks and may therefore fall short of management's expectations. Expectations + Authority = Responsibility + Competence of the PM
The primary responsibility of a PM is to ensure the proper coordination of activities to achieve the dual goals of client satisfaction and corporate profitability. The following three sections explore examples of organizational structures, the challenges PMs face, and how it is possible to operate within each respective structure. (1) The Apprentice (Functional) Organization
This organization possesses a hierarchical structure that is pyramid-shaped. Stratified levels of management are subordinated by distinctly horizontal tiers. Work activities are divided functionally by specialty and discipline.
Hierarchical organizations may create an atmosphere whereby a new project manager is "apprenticed" under an older, more experienced PM. Within the Apprentice Organization, the PM can expect to assume the role of "student" to a more experienced "mentor." Historically within this industry, this type of organization is generally a smaller and older firm where management employs a hands-on approach.
Senior PMs (the mentors) in an Apprentice Organization tend to be highly experienced in managing and estimating relatively small projects. They may be computer-savvy - especially in word processing and spreadsheets - with excellent customer liaison skills. They may also be skilled teachers and employee trainers.
Recent employment patterns within the industry indicate that junior PMs (the students) in an Apprentice Organization tend to be recent university graduates with degrees in geography or related fields.
The concept of the Apprentice Organization has existed ever since the Middle Ages, in the form of various artists guilds. Maps in the Apprentice Organization might be viewed as "works of art." PMs could count among their staff stereo operators who are craftsmen of the highest order. Some stereo operators may have been creating map artwork since well before any of the junior PMs were born. In this sort of an environment, where maps are truly viewed as works of art, and where stereo operators are artists, a younger PM may be limited in how much he or she can manage projects. These sorts often show a great deal of respect for the artists crafting the maps, and also for senior management (the chief artists). They may face situations where their knowledge and judgment is questioned. In short, they are managing from a position of potential weakness commonly associated with youth, inexperience, and apprenticeship.
To succeed within an Apprentice Organization, these younger PMs must be able to persuade and cajole their senior coworkers and management to their way of thinking. They must also possess the ability to understand management's temperament and clearly communicate their requests within this type of environment.
PMs created in this type of organization are initially limited to the knowledge imparted by their mentors. This knowledge transfer process, while exceptionally effective, may also take years to turn the "students" into effective and independent PMs. In some cases, junior PMs may be faced with years of playing the role of the company rookie who doesn't understand the older and wiser map craftsmen/artists. (2) The Seniority (Functional)
Organization Another example of an organization with a hierarchical structure appears in Seniority Organizations that create PMs from their production staff. In this model, production workers with years of experience and seniority are placed in PM slots as part of a rewards system. The PM's position is regarded as a promotion, a way to advance into management.
The Seniority Organization model can trace its roots back to the manufacturing industries of the late 19th century. The photogrammetric mapping PM in this scenario is akin to the old-time "shop foreman." The Seniority Organization model is still prevalent today in such industries as heavy manufacturing.
Project managers face several challenges within the Seniority Organization model. One such challenge involves the fact that PMs could be in a position of managing former co-workers. PMs may therefore suffer personal struggles with their new position as existing friendships become secondary to the successful completion of the projects they are managing.
Project managers who have been promoted from within the production environment may not initially possess the necessary management skills that include:
• Budgeting of time and resources
• Project scheduling
• Managing client relationships
• Multi-tasking
• Managing co-workers and subordinates.
Finally, PMs who have been thusly promoted may similarly suffer from their lack of experience in administration. Project managers created in a Seniority Organization environment may be technically sound in map production, but may not initially be able to comprehend the necessary administrative-type project management processes beyond the production environment, such as subcontractor management, contracts management, and motivation of personnel.
To mitigate some of the potential issues as outlined above, a program of education and mentoring should be put into place to develop whatever skills may be lacking. Project managers should be required to take project management courses. Depending upon the individual's needs and abilities, some PMs should be encouraged to enroll in an advanced management degree program, desktop mapping training, a budgeting/scheduling software class, or a contracts/subcontractor management course. (3) The Matrix (Flat) Organization
Other photogrammetric mapping firms have determined that this model best meets their needs. The Matrix Organization is a hybrid structure aimed at optimizing strengths and minimizing weaknesses of the functional structures described above. The Matrix Organization is functionally less rigid, where extended lateral mobility plays an important part.
When viewing Matrix Organizations from within the photogrammetric mapping industry, one finds that it is not unusual for a PM to have technical (map production), managerial (administrative), and soft (people) skills. Project managers may likewise possess advanced (Master's level) degrees, some with an emphasis on management.
The PM in a Matrix Organization has equal status with the functional managers (FMs) of that same organization. As a result, this role calls for strong peer-level negotiating abilities. The Matrix Organization is characterized by a "two-boss" situation, that is, a sort of co-management scenario. One of the bosses is the PM, who determines what is to be done and when it is to be done. The other boss is the FM, who decides the procedures necessary to do the job and allocates the required resources. The PM concentrates on defining work activities, developing schedules, and preparing budgets. Meanwhile, the FM is concerned with quality assurance and technical competence.
The Matrix Organization PM, due to his or her peer status with the FM, is required to "negotiate" the project to a successful conclusion. The Matrix Organization PM is also faced with a different set of challenges that include being placed in a "two boss" situation. His or her negotiating and communications abilities will determine the level of success to be achieved.
To mitigate some of the potential issues that this two-boss situation may cause, and depending upon each individual's needs and abilities, some PMs may be encouraged to attend management classes or industry seminars that focus on the following skill sets:
• Team building
• Conflict management and confrontational skills
• Negotiation tactics
• Peer-to-peer communications skills
• Empathy.
Project managers who operate within a Matrix Organization should attempt to develop the soft skills listed above that are consistent with their personality, as discussed in the following section. Personality and Self-image
Personality and self-image, like fingerprints and genetic code, are unique to every individual. There is no foolproof way to determine in advance whether or not an individual will be a successful PM. However, there are known qualities that can suggest a certain high aptitude for project management. These qualities include:
• Supervisory and organizational skills
• Verbal and written communications skills
• Industry presence
• Team-building skills
• Customer service orientation
• Strong work ethic and multi-tasking skills
• Principled decision-making
• Self-discipline
• Technical skills
• Personnel motivation skills.
One method used to determine personality types and levels of self-image is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, commonly known as the Myers Briggs test. This personality-modeling exam, published by Consulting Psychologists Press, is one of the most widely used questionnaires in the world. Through a battery of questions, completed under the guidance of a suitably qualified administrator, it records an individual's inclination for extroversion, introversion, sensing, intuition, thinking, feeling, judgment, and perception. Test results place the individual into one of 16 different personality types, each designated by a four-letter group that clearly identifies the results, such as ENTP, INFP, ESTJ, and so on. While no test is entirely foolproof, Myers Briggs has proven to be a reliable indicator of an individual's abilities. The answers to the questions may be used to assist in determining what type of personality and self-image an individual actually possesses, and whether or not this person fits the ideal PM model.
When Myers Briggs types are carefully analyzed, one realizes that every personality type has some qualities that fit well within the PM model. However, if one were to view a cross section of successful PMs from multiple industries, including photogrammetry, one might determine that there is a particular personality type - Extroverted/Sensing/Thinking/Judging (ESTJ) - that exhibits nearly all of the qualities necessary to become a successful PM in any of the aforementioned organizational structures.
The following description of the ESTJ personality type has been derived from various sources that include the Consulting Psychologists Press, Human Relations Magazine and Typelogic, and then extrapolated into the photogrammetric industry by the authors of this article.
Because they are extroverts, ESTJs focus outwardly on people. This trait generally translates into positive supervisory skills. They enjoy organizing and mobilizing individuals. A supervisory PM position in a production environment is especially well suited for this personality type. They may also enjoy enforcing the rules, which generally translates into maintaining and enforcing project schedules, delivery deadlines, and so on.
Their ability to communicate extends beyond their supervisory responsibilities as referenced above. These types tend to be outspoken persons of principle who easily communicate the rules, and the resultant responsibilities, to every member of the group under their supervision. The ESTJ individual also readily communicates with those whom they serve (i.e., the customer) in an honest attempt to please.
ESTJs are joiners; they have a deep-seated need to belong. This need is expressed in their hard-core belief in teams and teamwork. They operate very well in a team environment and, where none exists, they will often work to create one.
They are highly responsible individuals who pride themselves on this fact, and they love to provide and receive "good customer service." Providing good service enhances the self-image of the ESTJ, affirming their responsible nature and engendering great personal pride when this superior service is recognized.
ESTJs are great proponents of the work ethic. They strongly believe that power and prestige should be worked for, and earned. As a result, they have great respect for authority figures, whom they see as having earned their positions through hard work. ESTJs will work as hard as humanly possible to see a task through to completion.
They also expect others to behave in a similar fashion. They are individuals of principle and are unafraid of making decisions and standing by those made by their superiors, even if there is opposition.
Finally, ESTJs have a desire to exhibit personal discipline. This can manifest itself through the work environment in a desire to acquire and develop technical skills through self-study and other self-directed methods.
From the ESTJ personality profile as illustrated above, one can infer that a PM will make, and stand behind, decisions based upon project requirements, instructions from superiors, needs of the customer, and their own technical knowledge. Summary
During the course of a project, the PM must make many decisions and may occupy numerous roles. In the process of achieving project goals, he or she may be required to assume a variety of roles that could include the following:
• Student - serving under an experienced project manager to learn how to manage projects and people
• Foreman - managing former production co-workers
• Negotiator - skillfully negotiating for authority, respect, and resources
• Communicator - clearly expressing technical, schedule, and budgetary requirements to a variety of individuals, and at a multitude of levels within an organization
• Navigator - able to prevent scope "creep" and budget "slippage."
The PM's ability to act out any or all of the aforementioned roles depends heavily upon the organizational structure and his or her personality type. Senior managers and the PMs themselves must remain ever mindful of the answers to the question, "Are the personalities and self-images of our PMs suited to our organizational structure?" About the Authors:
Stanley C. Budhram is a senior project manager with BAE SYSTEMS ADR. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected]. J. Edward Kunz is a marketing project manager with BAE SYSTEMS ADR. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected]. David Nale is the president at Emap International. He may be contacted via e-mail at [email protected] Back |
